Functionalized, hydrogen-passivated silicon surfaces

ABSTRACT

This invention is generally related to a method of making a molecule-surface interface comprising at least one surface comprising at least one material and at least one organic group wherein the organic group is adjoined to the surface and the method comprises contacting at least one organic group precursor with at least one surface wherein the organic group precursor is capable of reacting with the surface in a manner sufficient to adjoin the organic group and the surface.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/619,073, filed Jan. 2, 2007, which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/356,841 (now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,176,146),filed Feb. 3, 2003, which claims the priority of U.S. provisional patent60/353,120, filed Feb. 1, 2002, all of which are incorporated byreference as if written herein in their entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This work was supported by funding from the Department of DefenseAdvanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) administered by the Office ofNaval Research (ONR) Grant Nos. N00014-01-1-0657 and N00014-99-1-0406.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention is generally related to a method of making amolecule-surface interface. The surface comprises at least one materialand at least one organic group adjoined to the surface. The methodcomprises contacting at least one organic group precursor with at leastone surface wherein the organic group precursor is capable of reactingwith the surface in a manner sufficient to adjoin the organic group andthe surface.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Modern solid-state electronic devices, such as transistors and othercircuits and switches, rely on high-quality, easily manufacturedelectrical interconnects, where an interconnect comprises a point ofcontact between at least two different materials. Key to the properfunction of such interconnect devices is the robustness of theinterconnect and its ability to reliably conduct electronic signals suchas current and potential. Additionally, interconnect devices may also berequired to conduct photons as for example to transmit light-basedsignals. Dependable techniques of manufacturing strive to consistentlycreate high-quality, defect-free interconnects. Such devices fail whencontact across the interconnect is impeded or prevented. For example, atsmall dimensions surface roughness at the contact boundary can make itdifficult to achieve or maintain contact sufficient to ensure properelectrical conduction. At dimensions approaching the nanometer scale,normal surface topology of metal surfaces ordinarily used ininterconnects can prevent large portions of the corresponding surfacesfrom establishing contact. These gaps substantially increase theelectrical resistance in the interconnect device and often result in aninterconnect device that cannot adequately conduct electrical current.

Recent advances in nanotechnology have made it possible to consider thesmallest possible sizes for electronic devices. Namely, circuits anddevices, including electrical interconnects, employing devices thatcomprise one or a small collection of molecules are now within the realmof plausible device structures. Engineering good contacts at themolecular level poses a significant challenge. As the fabrication ofcoherent molecular electronic structures on various surfaces evolves,the detailed chemical nature of the connection between the molecular andmacro-scale worlds will become increasingly important. See, for example,Cahen, D.; Hodes, G. Adv. Mater. 2002, 14, 789 and Yaliraki, S. N.;Ratner, M. A. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 2002, 960, 153.

Ideally, in the case of electronic devices employing conjugated organicmolecules, a bond allowing strong electronic coupling between the energybands of a bulk contact and the orbitals of a conjugated organicmolecule would allow for a great deal of synthetic variation in deviceproperties. Recent advances in surface chemistry offer an increasinglysophisticated range of techniques for orienting molecules on a widevariety of materials. See for example, Ullman, A. Chem. Rev. 1996, 96,1533; Buriak, J. M. Chem. Rev. 2002, 102, 1271; and Seker, F.; Meeker,K.; Kuech,T. F.; Ellis,A. B. Chem. Rev. 2000, 100,2505. These newtechniques improve the prospects of future ‘bottom-up’ fabricationstrategies in nanotechnology using chemical techniques and molecularcomponents to augment traditional fabrication schemes. See, for example,Chen, J.; Reed, M. A.; Rawlett, A. M.; Tour, J. M. Science 1999, 286,1550; Tour, J. M. Acc. Chem. Res. 2000, 33, 791; and Reed, M. A.; Chen,J.; Rawlett, A. M.; Price, D. W.; Tour, J. M. App. Phys. Lett. 2001, 78,3735, all incorporated herein by reference.

Some have attempted to functionalize surfaces with organic moleculesemploying various combinations of conditions and/or reagents.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,429,708 to Linford et al. provides for a method forproducing a molecular layer of a selected molecular moiety on a siliconsurface in which a silicon surface is etched to form a hydrogenatedsilicon surface and combined with a free radical-producing compound,where the free radical produced by the free radical-producing compoundcorresponds to the selected molecular moiety. The combined siliconsurface and free radical-producing compound is then heated to sufficienttemperature to initiate reaction between the free radical-producingcompound and the hydrogenated silicon surface.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,284,317 B1 to Laibinis et al. relates to methods ofderivatizing semiconductor surfaces, particularly porous siliconsurfaces with silicon-carbon units. The derivatization occurs throughthe direct addition of an organometallic reagent in the absence of anexternal energy source such as heat and photochemical or electrochemicalenergies. The method of the invention allows the formation of uniqueintermediates including silicon hydride units bonded to metal ions.Because of these unique intermediates, it is possible to form previouslyinaccessible silicon-carbon units, for example where the carbon atom isan unsaturated carbon atom. Such inaccessible silicon-carbon units alsoinclude silicon-polymer covalent bond formation, in particular where thepolymer is a conducting polymer. Thus, the present invention alsoprovides a novel semiconductor surface/polymer junction having improvedinterfacial interactions.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,217,740 B1 to Andrieux et al. concerns a process forelectrochemically producing a carbonaceous material with its surfacemodified by organic groups, in particular functionalized organic groups.The process comprises providing a solution, in a protic or aproticsolvent, comprising a salt of a carboxylate of an organic residuecapable of undergoing a Kolbe reaction. The solution is then put incontact with a carbonaceous material, wherein the carbonaceous materialis positively polarized with respect to a cathode that is also incontact with the solution. The solution may optionally contain anelectrolyte. The invention also concerns carbonaceous materials modifiedat the surface with arylmethyl groups and the use of these modifiedmaterials, for example, in the production of composite materials.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,554,739 to Belmont discloses processes for preparing acarbon product having an organic group attached to a carbon material.The carbon material is selected from graphite powder, a graphite fiber,a carbon fiber, a carbon cloth, a vitreous carbon product, and anactivated carbon product. In one process at least one diazonium saltreacts with a carbon material, in the absence of an externally appliedelectric potential, sufficient to activate the diazonium salt. Inanother process at least one diazonium salt reacts with a carbonmaterial in a protic reaction medium.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,042,643 to Belmont et al. discloses processes forpreparing a carbon black product having an organic group attached to thecarbon black. In one process at least one diazonium salt reacts with acarbon black in the absence of an externally applied electric currentsufficient to reduce the diazonium salt. In another process at least onediazonium salt reacts with a carbon black in a protic reaction medium.Carbon black products which may be prepared according to process of theinvention are described as well as uses of such carbon black products inplastic compositions, rubber compositions, paper compositions, andtextile compositions.

PCT Patent Application No. 02/23747 to Tour et al., filed on Jul. 26,2002 and incorporated herein by reference, describes an electricalinterconnect device achieved by applying to the surface of thecontact(s) a molecular coating chosen from the group consisting ofmonomers, oligomers, or polymers that are primarily organic in origin,capable of forming self-assembled monolayers or self-assembledmultilayers, electrically conducting or non-conducting, and containmetal-binding ligands as pendant groups or as part of their backbone.

J. Phys. Chem. B 1997, vol. 101, pp. 2415-2420 considers anelectrochemical approach to derivatize atomically flat Si(111) surfaceswith aryl adlayers. In particular, what is shown is that theelectrochemical reduction of 4-nitro- and 4-bromobenzenediazonium saltsin an aqueous acidic HF solution under applied external potential leadsto modification of Si(111) surfaces.

Polymer 2003, vol. 44, pp 19-24 teaches that reducedpolytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) can be used to graft nitro andbromo-phenyl diazonium tetrafluoroborate salts in a manner similar tothat used for carbon, except that no application of a reductivepotential during grafting was required.

Notwithstanding the teachings of the prior art, the problem of making ahigh-quality molecule-surface interface that provides for a bond ofsufficient strength and quality to effect good electronic or photonicinteraction between an organic molecule and a surface remains less thancompletely solved. Moreover, a need remains for a method of making ahigh-quality molecule-surface interface using a minimum of additionalsteps, reagents or energy.

SUMMARY

The present invention discloses a method of making a molecule-surfaceinterface comprising at least one surface and at least one organic groupadjoined to the surface. The current method comprises contacting atleast one organic group precursor with at least one surface wherein theorganic group precursor is capable of reacting with the surface in amanner sufficient to adjoin the organic group and the surface.

According to the present invention, the surface defining themolecule-surface interface may be unadulterated or suitably derivatizedif desired. Hydride passivation is a preferred surface derivatizationaccording to some embodiments. According to other embodiments, thesurface is curved and in the form of particles that are at least about 2nm in average size.

Suitable materials of the current molecule-surface interface includethose materials having a negative open circuit potential that is lessthan the reduction potential of the organic group precursor.Particularly preferred materials are selected from the group consistingof germanium, tin, boron, carbon, lead, gallium, arsenic, silicon,palladium, platinum, nickel, gold, copper, and any combination thereof.According to some embodiments, the material may be an alloy or amaterial that is doped with some compound or element. Suitable organicgroup precursors are preferably capable of reacting with the surface ina manner sufficient to adjoin the organic group and the surface. It isan advantage of the current method that no additional energy, reagentsor steps are required to cause the organic group precursor to react withthe surface to adjoin the organic group to the surface. In order for theorganic group precursor to be capable of reacting with the surface itmust have a reduction potential that is greater than the negative opencircuit potential (OCP) of the surface. The organic group precursors ofthe present method are preferably diazonium salts and most preferablyaryl diazonium salts depicted in formulas (IV), (V) and (VI):

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a more complete understanding of the present disclosure, and theadvantages thereof, reference is now made to the following descriptionsto be taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings describingspecific embodiments of the disclosure, wherein:

FIG. 1 presents a schematic illustration of a process whereby an organicgroup becomes adjoined to a reactant surface to provide a productsurface.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention comprises a method of making a molecule-surfaceinterface wherein the interface comprises at least one surfacecomprising at least one material and at least one organic group adjoinedto the surface. As used herein, adjoin will have its ordinary meaning;to wit, adjoin means to lie close to or to be in contact with oneanother. As further used herein, comprise shall mean to consist of inpart. The current method comprises contacting at least one organic groupprecursor with at least one surface wherein the organic group precursoris capable of reacting with the surface in a manner sufficient to adjointhe organic group and the surface.

The surfaces of the current method preferably have those propertiesusually associated with surfaces used in surface science studies, butsmooth surfaces are not essential. Thus, the subject surfaces should beclean, and free of or low in adsobed contaminants or electrochemicallyinert oxide layers. Such surfaces are optimally prepared in oxygen-free,water-free environments to provide for clean, oxide-free surfaces. Thesurfaces will also be substantially smooth. It shall be understood, asit is to those in the art, that a smooth surface will still have anumber of inherent defects at the nano-sized and atomic levels, such as,for example, kinks, ledges, terraces and the like. Techniques forpreparing suitable subject surfaces may be found, for example, in Mat.Res. Symp. Proc. 1997, vol. 477, pp. 299-304, incorporated herein byreference.

According to one embodiment of the present invention, the surface isderivatized. As used herein, a derivatized surface is one that has beentreated in such a manner as to have a modified surface composition. Thatis, the surface is combined with a reagent capable of chemicallymodifying the surface such that the outermost surface will compriseatoms or chemical groups different from the original surfacecomposition. According to another embodiment, the derivatized surface ispreferably a chemically passivated surface. As used herein, a passivatedsurface is one that has been substituted with some chemical species tomitigate or change the chemical reactivity of the surface. Passivationmay, for instance, sufficiently reduce the reactivity of a metastablesurface towards oxygen to preclude the formation of an oxide layer onthe surface. In particular, according to another embodiment of thepresent invention, a derivatized surface is a passivated surface that ispreferably at least partially hydride-passivated. A hydride-passivatedsurface shall be defined herein as a surface that is at least partiallycovered by hydrogen atoms chemically bonded to the surface. Methods ofmaking a hydride-passivated silicon surface are well known in the art;exemplary methods may be found, for example, in Appl. Phys. Lett. 1990,vol. 12, pp. 656-658.

The surface of the current invention may have one or a combination ofmany different shapes. Preferably, the surface of the current inventionhas a shape that is flat, curved, corrugated, or a combination thereof.According to one embodiment, the surface is curved and in the form ofparticles that are at least about 2 nm in average diameter; morepreferably between about 10 nm and about 250 nm in average diameter.Surfaces according to this embodiment may be known as nanoparticles andthere exist methods to make such particles. See, for example, Chem. Soc.Rev. 1999, vol. 28 179-185, incorporated herein by reference. Thesurface may also be corrugated as would result from certain lithographicprocesses.

Surfaces may generally be characterized by an arrangement of atoms thatmay differ markedly from the arrangement of atoms in the bulk materialbeneath the surface. The precise arrangement of surface atoms is chieflygoverned by the thermodynamics of the atomic packing; namely, the atomicarrangement that possesses the lowest total energy for the system willoften tend to be the arrangement adopted by the surface atoms. Surfaces,though often possessing many defects and eluding completecharacterization, are often envisioned as ideal surfaces with aperfectly regular arrangement of surface atoms. One way to describe sucharrangements utilizes a vector notation wherein the spacing betweenatoms within a unit cell is defined by unit vectors. A detailedexplanation of this vector notation description, called Miller indices,may be found in any standard reference on the subject, such as, forexample, Anthony R. West, “Basic Solid State Chemistry”, Wiley Press:New York, 1988, pp. 9-12. There are a nearly infinite number of suitablesurface lattice configurations that are acceptable for use in thepresent invention. The precise surface, as described by the Millerindex, will strongly depend on the material employed.

According to the present method, the surface shall comprise at least onematerial. The material of the present method will have a definitecomposition. There may be one or a combination of many materials thatmay have the desirable electronic properties required for use in thepresent method. In particular, those materials having a negative opencircuit potential that is less than the reduction potential of theorganic group precursor, as described in detail below, are suitable foruse in the present method. However, some materials are more preferredthan others. In particular, the material may be selected from the groupconsisting of transition metals, main group metals, Group IIIB elements,Group IVB elements, Group VB elements, and any combination thereof. Bytransition metals it shall be understood that these are the d-blockmetals denoted by Groups IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA, VIIIA, IB, and IIIBaccording to the Previous IUPAC Form of The Periodic Table of theElements as found in, for instance, the CRC Handbook of Chemistry ofPhysics, 82^(nd) Edition, 2001-2002 and used herein as the standardreference for all element group numbers throughout this specification.As used herein, the main group metals shall include the metals of GroupsIA, IIA, IIIB, IVB, VB and VIB. Moreover, all elements of Groups IIIB,VB, and IVB, including for example carbon and boron, are included amongthe preferred materials of the present method. More preferred materialsare selected from the group consisting of germanium, tin, boron, carbon,lead, gallium, arsenic, silicon, palladium, platinum, nickel, gold,copper, and any combination thereof; while most preferred materials areselected from the group consisting of silicon, gallium arsenide andpalladium. According to one embodiment, a particularly preferredmaterial of the current method is silicon.

The material of the current method may be a pure substance or a mixtureof substances. Mixtures of substances can include alloys. However, itwill be understood that no material can be absolutely pure and it isexpected that the materials of the present method may contain tracecontaminants. Indeed, in some embodiments of the current invention, itis desirable to employ mixtures or materials made intentionally impure,i.e. materials containing dopants. Thus, according to one embodiment,the material may be an alloy or a material that is doped with somecompound or element, hereinafter referred to as a dopant. Typicaldopants are well-known in the art; exemplary dopants include boron,phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, silicon, tellurium, zinc, aluminum, andchromium. At least one or more dopants may be added to the material ofthe present method to provide a material with desirable electronicproperties. In particular, dopants are preferably added to providematerials that behave as semiconductors.

Materials with a broad range of electronic properties may be used in thecurrent method including conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. Thesemiconductors of the present method may be those derived from theaddition of any type of dopant or those not requiring the addition of adopant. In particular, the semiconductor may be a p-type, n-type orintrinsic semiconductor. An intrinsic semiconductor will be definedherein as one that does not require the presence of a dopant to have theproperties of a semiconductor.

The material of the present method may or may not be crystalline. Acrystalline material may comprise one and often many single crystals. Asingle crystal comprises atoms arranged in a regular succession ofrepeating units, called unit cells, in a common direction and in acommon lattice. The unit cell is the same for any one given crystaltype. A regular succession of unit cells in a common direction givesrise to a single crystal. A crystalline material may comprise manyindividual crystals of the same type in different planes. A singlematerial may have many different crystal types accessible to it. Thus, asingle material comprising more than one crystal type is known as apolycrystalline material. A material without any detectable crystallineorder is amorphous. It shall be understood that some materials maycomprise microdomains of crystalline order that appear nearly amorphousaccording to current methods of crystal characterization, such as, forexample X-ray diffraction (XRD). The current method can tolerate a widerange of crystalline or non-crystalline materials. In particular, acrystalline material may or may not be a single crystal. Furthermore,the material may be polycrystalline, nanocrystalline or amorphous.

There are materials according to the current method that are preferablewith respect to the combination of crystallinity, dopants, conductivityand composition. According to some embodiments, preferred materials arepalladium, gallium arsenide, p-type doped single-crystal silicon,intrinsic single-crystal silicon, n-type doped single-crystal siliconand n-type doped polycrystalline silicon. According to another preferredembodiment of the present invention, the material is silicon with a<100>, <111> or <110> surface. According to yet another preferredembodiment, the material is palladium, gallium arsenide, p-type dopedsingle-crystal silicon, intrinsic single-crystal silicon, n-type dopedsingle-crystal silicon or n-type polycrystalline silicon with a <100>,<111> or <110> flat, hydride-passivated surface.

The present method further comprises contacting at least one organicgroup precursor with at least one surface. The organic group precursoris preferably capable of reacting with the surface in a mannersufficient to adjoin the organic group and the surface. It is anadvantage of the current method that no additional energy, reagents orsteps are required to cause the organic group precursor to react withthe surface to adjoin the organic group to the surface. In order for theorganic group precursor to be capable of reacting with the surface, itmust have a reduction potential that is greater than the negative opencircuit potential (OCP) of the surface. OCP is defined as the “resting”potential of an electrode in the absence of an applied externalpotential. Reduction potential is defined as the energy change,expressed in volts (V), accompanying gain of an electron. See forexample Xiaoge G. Zhang, “Electrochemistry of Silicon and its Oxides”,Kluwer Publishers: New York, 2001, pp. 1-43, incorporated herein byreference. Though not wishing to be bound by any particular theory, itis believed that the organic group precursor can undergo reduction andgain an electron from the surface when the negative open circuitpotential is less than the reduction potential of the organic groupprecursor. According to this non-binding theory, a reactive intermediateis generated by reduction of the organic group precursor that is capableof reacting with the surface. It is believed that in this way theorganic group may be adjoined to the surface in the present invention.As depicted in FIG. 1, an exemplary generic organic group precursor 1comprising extrudable moiety 2 is reduced in the presence of reactantsurface 3. Consequently, reactive intermediate 4 adjoins to productsurface 5 to give adjoined organic group 6. Organic group 6 is depictedas adjoined to product surface 5 by a dashed line 7. As suggested bydashed line 7, the precise nature of the way in which organic group 6 isadjoined to product surface 5 is not completely known. Organic group 6may be adjoined in any one of a number of ways including, but notlimited to, a covalent bond, an ionic bond or a physisorbed bond.According to one preferred embodiment, the organic group is bonded tothe surface via a covalent bond.

According to yet another embodiment of the present method, the organicgroup is arranged in at least one layer having at least some degree oforder. Further according to this embodiment, it is believed that theorganic groups may be arranged such that their long axis is betweenabout 90° and about 45° to the surface. Furthermore, it is believed thatthe organic groups tend to arrange themselves such that the long axes ofall the organic groups tend to be roughly parallel to each other. Thus,a layer that is formed is believed to be an ordered layer, although thedegree of order will vary depending on the surface and the substrate,and order is not essential for many of the electrical and photonicprocesses eventually sought. It is also possible according to otherembodiments of the current method, to assemble multiple layers upon thesurface. Such layers will assemble upon the surface and further layerswill tend to assemble upon preceding layers.

It is envisioned that there are many ways in which one could bring theorganic group precursor into contact with the surface. For example, theorganic group precursor may be in the form of a solution. Alternatively,it is conceivable that the organic group precursor could be brought intocontact with the surface as a neat liquid or solid. It is evenconceivable that a molecular beam could be used or that the substratecould be evaporated onto the surface by gas phase contact, for example.However, it is preferred according to the present invention to bring theorganic group precursor into contact with the surface via a solution ofthe organic group precursor. Solvents for use in the present inventionwill be those capable of at least partially dissolving the organic groupprecursor. Preferred solvents include acetonitrile, methylene chloride,chloroform, ether, sulfolane, and in some cases, water. Acetonitrile isa most preferred solvent.

The organic group precursors of the present method will preferably be adiazonium salt. There exist an almost infinite number of diazonium saltsthat could be used in the present invention, including known diazoniumsalts that have been previously synthesized and new diazonium salts thathave yet to be synthesized. Some exemplary classes of diazonium saltsinclude alkyl and aryl diazonium salts. It will be appreciated that somediazonium salts will be more stable than others. While it is anticipatedthat, in theory, any diazonium salt may be used, according to oneembodiment those that are stable to the required manipulations areparticularly preferred. According to an alternative embodiment, thosethat are not particularly stable may be generated in situ from compoundsthat form diazonium salts when subjected to the proper conditions.

According to one embodiment, the diazonium salt is of the generalformula (I) wherein R₁

may be alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, or alkynyl; A may be H, alkyl, alkenyl,aryl, alkynyl or any combination thereof; Y_(x) may be at least one, andpossibly more, substituents from the group consisting of nitro, amino,acyl, heteroatoms, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, alkynl, fluoro, diazonium,diazo, allyl, thiol, thioacetate, isonitrile, nitrile and H; and X⁻ maybe any suitable counterion. In formula (I), it will be understood thatthe bond between R₁ and the aryl ring resides between two carbons of thearyl ring to indicate that R₁ may be in any position relative todiazonium moiety N₂ ⁺X⁻. It shall be further understood that in R₁,Y_(x) and A, each alkyl, aryl, alkenyl and alkynyl group may be furthersubstituted with other groups, such as fluoro, nitro, cyano, and amino.Moreover, alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups are not limited to anyparticular length. The diazonium moiety of the diazonium salt comprisesa latent molecule of N₂ and a counterion. Though not wishing to be boundby any particular theory, it is believed that, according to the presentinvention, the nitrogen of the diazonium salt is extruded as gaseousnitrogen when the reduction potential of the organic group precursor isgreater than the negative open circuit potential of the surface and theresulting aryl radical permits for the organic group to be adjoined tothe surface. The counterion of the diazonium salt affects the stabilityof the diazonium salt and is selected based on its ability to form aloose ionic bond with the charged dinitrogen moiety. Preferredcounterions include tetrafluoroborate,tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)-borate, hexafluorophosphate, chloride,bromide, iodide and hydrogensulfate. Tetrafluoroborate is a particularlypreferred counterion for the diazonium salts of the current method.

More preferred diazonium salts are those according to general formula(II) wherein Ar₁ is

at least one aryl group wherein the relative substitution pattern of thediazo group N₂ ⁺X⁻ to R₁ may be ortho, meta or para and Ar₁ may befurther substituted in any other position with at least one substituentselected from the group consisting of nitro, amino, acyl, heteroatoms,alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, alkynyl, fluoro, diazonium, diazo, allyl, thiol,thioacetate, isonitrile, nitrile and H; R₁ may be alkyl, alkenyl, aryl,or alkynyl of any further substitution and of any given length; Ar₂ isat least one aryl group wherein the relative substitution pattern of R₂to R₁ may be ortho, meta or para and Ar₂ may be further substituted inany other position with at least one substituent selected from the groupconsisting of nitro, amino, acyl, heteroatoms, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl,alkynyl, fluoro, diazonium, diazo, allyl, thiol, thioacetate,isonitrile, nitrile and H; and R₂ is selected from the group consistingof alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, alkynyl and arylalkynl, of any furthersubstitution and of any given length wherein arylalkynyl, by way ofillustration, shall have the general formula (III); wherein Y_(x) is atleast one, and possibly more, substituents selected from

the group consisting of nitro, amino, acyl, heteroatoms, alkyl, alkenyl,aryl, alkynyl, fluoro, diazonium, diazo, allyl, thiol, thioacetate,isonitrile, nitrile and H.

According to formula (II), it shall be understood that the relativesubstitution pattern of the diazo group N₂ ⁺X⁻ to R₁ on aryl group Ar₁may be any relative substitution pattern including ortho, meta or para.Similarly, for aryl group Ar₂, the relative substitution pattern of R₁and R₂ may be ortho, meta or para. Particularly preferred aryl diazoniumsalts for use in the present invention include those depicted informulas (IV), (V) and (VI):

The diazoniun salts of the present invention may be used directly as theorganic group precursor. However, it is also possible according to analternative embodiment of the present method to use another chemicalspecies and obtain the organic group precursor in situ by adding, forexample, another reagent. For example, it is conceivable that in thecase of diazonium salts sufficiently unstable to permit for theirisolation or manipulation, aromatic amines, also known as anilines,could be used in conjunction with a reagent such as isoamyl nitrite toprovide an organic group precursor diazonium salt in situ.

EXPERIMENTAL EXAMPLES Reagents and Solvents for Surface Reactions

Acetonitrile (99.5+%) for surface reactions was purchased from Aldrichpacked under nitrogen in a SureSeal container. Acetonitrile, CH₂Cl₂,ethanol, and water used for rinsing were purchased at HPLC grade andused without further purification. Concentrated ammonium fluoride waspurchased at VLSI grade from J.T. Baker. Concentrated hydrochloric acid,concentrated sulfuric acid, 49% hydrofluoric acid, and 30% hydrogenperoxide were purchased at reagent grade. Before use, all diazoniumsalts were stored under nitrogen in tightly capped vials in the dark at−30° C.

Ellipsometric Measurements

Measurements of surface optical constants and molecular layerthicknesses were taken with a single wavelength (632.8 nm laser)Gaertner Stokes Ellipsometer.

Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) Measurements

Electrochemical characterization was carried out with an BioanalyticalSystems (BAS CV-50W) analyzer. The reference was a saturated calomelelectrode (SCE). The counter-electrode was a clean Pt wire. The aqueousredox couple and electrolyte were 0.01 M Fe(CN)₆ ^(3/4−) in 0.1 M KC10₄.Approximately 1 cm² of sample was exposed to solution during CVmeasurements. The scan rate was 100 mV s⁻¹ from −200 mV to 600 mV.

X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) Measurements

A Physical Electronics (PHI 5700) XPS/ESCA system at 5×10⁻⁹ torr wasused to take photoelectron spectra. A monochromatic Al X-ray source at350 W was used with an analytical spot size of 1.2 mm and 45 degreetakeoff angle.

FTIR Measurements

A customized analytical system, based on a Mattson Research Seriesbench, was used, whose basic details are described elsewhere, seeParikh, A. N.; Allara, D. L. J. Chem. Phys. 1992, 96, 927, incorporatedherein by reference. FTIR spectra were obtained under an extended dryair purge using a liquid N₂ cooled wide-band MCT detector. Externalreflection spectra used 600 scans at 2 cm⁻¹ resolution at an 88.5 degreeangle of incidence. Transmission spectra used 600 scans at 4 cm⁻¹resolution at normal incidence. A multi-point baseline correction andH₂O and CO₂ subtractions in GRAMS/32 are used for qualitative andpresentation purposes.

Surface Preparation and Optical Constants

Pd samples were deposited by ion mill sputtering onto a 2-inch undopedoxidized Si wafer at 0.1 Å s⁻¹ until a final thickness of 2000 Å wasreached. No surface adhesion layer was used. The Pd samples were reactedwithin 10 minutes after coming out of the vacuum chamber, without anysurface cleaning. The n value for the clean Pd surface was 1.9 and k was−4.2. Highly doped 2-inch n-type Si(111) wafers (prime grade, As doped,0.001-0.005 ohm-cm) were first cleaned for 20 minutes in 2:1 H₂SO₄/H₂O₂“piranha solution” followed by rinsing copiously with water and dryingin a stream of N₂. The wafer was then hydride-terminated by immersion inN₂-sparged concentrated (40%) ammonium fluoride for 15 minutes, rinsedwith water, and dried in a stream of N₂. The n value for the Si(111):Hsurface was 3.87 and k was −0.04. Undoped GaAs(100) samples were cut(about 4 cm²) from a 3-inch wafer, sonicated in ethanol for 15 minutes,and UV/O₃ cleaned for 15 minutes. The oxidized GaAs shards were thentreated with concentrated (37%) HCl for 1 minute, followed by a briefrinse in water, then ethanol, and then a gentle stream of N₂. The nvalue for the clean GaAs surface was 3.85 and k was −0.2. XPSexperiments on GaAs used shards from a lightly Te-doped GaAs(100) waferprepared and characterized with the same protocols.

General Procedure for the Coupling of a Terminal Alkyne with an ArylHalide Utilizing a Palladium-Copper Cross-Coupling(Castro-Stephens/Sonogashira Protocol)

To an oven-dried screw cap tube or a round bottom flask equipped with amagnetic stir bar were added the aryl halide, bis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(II) dichloride (1-5 mol % based on aryl halide), and copper(I)iodide (1-5 mol % based on aryl halide). The vessel was then sealed witha rubber septum, evacuated and backfilled with nitrogen thrice.Triethylamine or N,N-diisopropylethylamine (Hünig's base) was addedfollowed by THF serving as a co-solvent. After a 5-minute incubation atroom temperature, the terminal alkyne was then added and the reactionmixture stirred until complete. External heating up to 80° C. was usedfor sluggish reactions. The reaction vessel was cooled to roomtemperature and quenched with water or a saturated solution of NH₄Cl.The organic layer was diluted with methylene chloride and washed with asaturated solution of NH₄Cl until the blue color of copper complexescould not be seen in the aqueous phase. The combined aqueous layers wereextracted with methylene chloride thrice. The combined organic layerswere dried over anhydrous MgSO₄ and the solvent removed in vacuo. Thecrude product was then purified by flash or column chromatography(silica gel). Alternative work-up procedure consisted of solvent removalin vacuo directly followed by chromatography.

General Procedure for the Diazotization of Aromatic Amines withNitrosonium Tetrafluoroborate in the Acetonitrile-Sulfolane System

The nitrosonium salt was weighed out in a nitrogen filled dry box andplaced in a round bottom flask equipped with a magnetic stirring bar andsealed with a septum. Acetonitrile and sulfolane were injected in 5 to 1volume ratio and the resulting suspension was cooled in a dryice-acetone bath to −40° C. The solution of the aromatic amine wasprepared by adding warm sulfolane (45-50° C.) to the amine under anitrogen blanket, sonication for 1 minute and subsequent addition ofacetonitrile (10-20% by volume) and added to the nitrosonium saltsuspension over 10 minutes. The reaction mixture was kept at −40° C. for30 minutes and let warn up to the room temperature. At this point thediazonium salt was precipitated by the addition of ether, collected byfiltration, washed with ether and dried. Additional purification of thesalt was accomplished by re-precipitation from DMSO by dichloromethaneand/or ether.

4-Styrylphenylamine

4-Iodoaniline (4.380 g, 20.0 mmol), styrene (2.78 mL, 24.0 mmol),palladium(II) acetate (0.244 g, 1.0 mmol), potassium carbonate (2.488 g,18.0 mmol), tetrabutylarnmonium bromide (9.348 g, 29.0 mmol), and DMF(25 mL) were coupled according to the general Heck coupling procedureabove for 4 h at 100° C. The crude product was purified via flash columnchromatography (3:7 ethyl acetate:hexanes) yielding 2.203 g (56%) of alight brown solid. IR (KBr) 3446.8, 3361.6, 3198.4, 1605.0, 1506.7,1437.9, 1280.4, 1173.2, 1065.7, 965.8, 814.8, 749.1, 685.7, 525.6, 484.5cm⁻¹. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ7.54-7.52 (m, 2H), 7.41-7.37 (m, 3 H),7.27 (tt, J=7.6, 1.6. Hz, 1 H), 7.09 (d, J=16.4 Hz, 1 H), 6.98 (d,J=16.4 Hz, 1 H), 6.71 (dt, J=8.8, 2.4 Hz, 2 H), 3.77 (br s, 2 H). ¹³CNMR (100 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 146.61, 138.40, 129.14, 129.05, 128.44, 128.20,127.34, 126.56, 125.53, 115.65.

4-Styrylbenzenediazonium Tetrafluoroborate

To a 25 mL round bottom in a drybox was added nitrosoniumtetrafluoroborate (0.11 g, 0.95 mmol). Acetonitrile (2 mL) was added andthe flask was cooled down to −30° C. A solution of 4-STYRYLPHENYLAMINE(0.17 g, 0.86 mmol) and BHT (0.19 g, 0.86 mmol) in acetonitrile (5 mL)was added dropwise via syringe. The reaction was allowed to warm to −5°C. over 20 min. Ether (10 mL) was then added and the precipitate wasfiltered. The title compound was purified by re-precipitating fromacetonitrile (3 mL) with ether (15 mL) to yield 0.82 g (34%) of thedesired compound.

4-(4-Iodophenylethynyl)Aniline

1,4-Diiodobenzene (4.95 g, 1.0 mmol),bis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(II) dichloride (0.07 g, 0.10 mmol),copper(I) iodide (0.019 g, 0.10 mmol), triethylamine (5 mL), THF (10 mL)and 4-ethynylaniline 0.585 g, 5.00 mmol) were used following the generalprocedure for couplings. For the synthesis of 4-ethynylaniline, pleasesee Tour et al. Chem. Eur. J. 2001, vol. 7, pp. 5118-5134 incorporatedherein by reference. The tube was capped and stirred room temperaturefor 12 h. Flash column chromatography (CH₂Cl₂—hexanes as eluent)afforded the desired product as light yellow needles (1.13 g, 71%yield). IR (KBr) 3441, 3356, 2210, 1612, 1515, 1281, 1135, 1003, 842,811, 512 cm⁻¹. ¹H NMR(400 MHz,CDCl₃)δ7.650 (m, AA′ part of AA′XX′pattern, J=8.7, 2.4, 1.8, 0.7 Hz, 2 H), 7.324 (m, XX′ part of AA′XX′pattern, J=8.7, 2.4, 1.8, 0.7 Hz, 2 H), 7.208 (m, AA′ part of AA′XX′pattern, J=8.6, 2.4, 1.8, 0.6 Hz, 2 H), 6.630 (m, XX′ part of AA′XX′pattern, J=8.6, 2.4, 1.8, 0.6 Hz, 2 H), 3.833 (s, 2H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz,CDCl₃) δ147.05, 137.60, 133.20, 133.07, 123.67, 114.95, 112.39, 93.45,91.83, 86.69.

4-Phenylethynylbenzenediazonium Tetrafluoroborate

Following the general diazotization procedure 4-phenylethynylaniline(0.579 g, 3.00 mmol) was treated with NOBF₄ (0.368 g, 3.15 mmol) in pureacetonitrile (20 mL). For the synthesis of 4-phenylethynylaniline,please see Kosynkin et al. Org. Lett. 2001, vol. 3, pp. 993-995,incorporated herein by reference. Yellow needles of the desired productwere precipitated with ether (0.753 g, 86.1% yield). IR (KBr) 3101,2294, 2217, 1578, 1415, 1033, 1071, 845, 692 cm⁻¹. ¹H NMR (400 MHz,CD₃CN) δ8.86 (m, AA′ part of AA′XX′ pattern, J=8.7, 2.4, 1.7, 0.5 Hz, 2H), 8.16 (m, XX′ part of AA′XX′ pattern, J=8.7, 2.4, 1.7, 0.5 Hz, 2 H),7.49-7.59 (m, 3H), 7.67-7.71 (m, 2 H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz, CD₃CN) δ137.15,134.67, 134.06, 133.13, 131.45, 129.82, 121.96, 114.35, 101.58,88.21.

4-(4-Iodophenylethynyl)Aniline (Aniline 2)

(0.319 g, 1.0 mmol), bis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(II) dichloride(0.028 g, 0.04 mmol), copper(I) iodide (0.008 g, 0.04 mmol),triethylamine (2 mL), THF (2 mL) and pentafluorophenylacetylene (0.288g, 1.50 mmol) were used following the general procedure for couplings.The tube was capped and stirred room temperature for 14 h. Flash columnchromatography (CH₂Cl₂—hexanes as eluent) afforded the desired productas light yellow needles (0.165 g, 43% yield). IR (KBr) 3442, 3347, 2959,2163, 2142, 1629, 1552, 1518, 1352, 1332, 1281, 1247, 1166, 838 cm⁻¹. ¹HNMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ7.47-7.54 (m, 4 H), 7.343 (m, XX′ part of AA′XX′pattern, J=8.7, 2.5, 1.8, 0.6 Hz, 2 H), 6.640 (m, XX′ part of AA′XX′pattern, J=8.7, 2.5, 1.8, 0.6 Hz, 2 H), 3.859 (s, 2H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz,CDCl₃) δ147.23, 133.32, 131.97, 131.88, 131.52, 125.60, 120.58, 114.93,112.22, 93.30, 87.18, 74.66. ¹⁹F NMR (470.5 MHz, THF-d₈) δ−134.73-134.80(m, 2F), −151.38 (tt, J=21, 3 Hz, 1F), −160.51-160.62 (m, 2F).

Diazonium Salt VI

Following the general diazotization procedure, ANILINE 2 (0.153 g, 0.040mmol) was treated with NOBF₄ (0.052 g, 0.52 mmol) in acetonitrile (4 mL)and sulfolane (4 mL). The precipitation of the product was effected bythe addition of ether (150 mL). The salt was washed with ether and driedin vacuo (0.124 g, 64% yield). IR (KBr) 3106, 2275, 2214, 1576, 1526,1502, 1078, 989, 854, 832 cm⁻¹. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ8.71-8.74 (m,2 H), 8.15-8.17 (m, 2 H), 7.74-7.79 (m, 4 H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz, DMSO-d₆)δ 133.87, 133.63, 133.09, 132.64, 132.25, 122.11, 114.93, 100.15, 98.31,89.83, 75.57. ¹⁹F NMR (470.5 MHz, CD₃CN) δ−136.86-136.92 (m, 2F),−150.42 (¹⁰BF₄), −150.47 (¹¹BF₄), −152.72 (tt, J=21, 3 Hz, 1F),−162.37=162.48 (m, 2F).

Reactions of Surfaces with Diazonium Salts

The cleaned, prepared surface materials were brought inside a low-oxygenN₂-atmosphere glove box. Inside the glove box, a solution of thediazonium salt was made to 0.5 mM concentration in acetonitrile,providing enough volume to completely cover the entire sample inside ascrew-cap Nalgene jar. To adequately cover a 2-inch wafer, at least 10mL must be prepared. For the smaller shards of GaAs, 5 mL of solution issufficient. The surface samples are immersed in the diazonium solution,sealed to prevent evaporation, and covered with foil to prevent lightexposure. The reaction time was 2 hours, although shorter reaction timesmay be possible. Reaction times longer than 6 hours tended to createmultilayers up to 3.5-5 nm thick, depending on the molecule that wasused (layer thicknesses were determined by ellipsometry). At the end ofthe reaction, the samples were brought out of the glove box, rinsed withacetonitrile and soaked for 5 minutes (to remove residual diazoniumsalt), and then rinsed with CH₂Cl₂ (to remove physisorbed hydrocarbons)and soaked for 1 minute. The samples were removed from the CH₂Cl₂ andthen dried thoroughly with N₂.

1. A method for making a molecule-surface interface, wherein the methodcomprises: a) providing at least one silicon surface; wherein the atleast one silicon surface comprises a doping state and a silicon form;and wherein the at least one silicon surface is at least partiallyhydride-passivated; b) generating at least one organic group precursor;wherein the at least one organic group precursor comprises at least onediazonium salt; c) contacting the at least one diazonium salt with theat least one silicon surface; and d) reacting the at least one diazoniumsalt with the at least one silicon surface; wherein the reacting stepcomprises covalently bonding a plurality of organic groups to the atleast one silicon surface; wherein the plurality of organic groups areproduced from the at least one organic group precursor; and wherein theplurality of organic groups comprise at least one layer on the at leastone silicon surface; wherein the reacting step occurs in the absence ofan externally applied potential; and wherein the reacting step isconducted in at least one solvent.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein thedoping state comprises undoped intrinsic silicon.
 3. The method of claim2, wherein the silicon form is selected from the group consisting ofsingle-crystal silicon, polycrystalline silicon, nanocrystallinesilicon, and amorphous silicon.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein thesingle-crystal silicon has a Miller index selected from the groupconsisting of <100>, <111> and <110>.
 5. The method of claim 1, whereinthe doping state comprises at least one dopant comprising the at leastone silicon surface.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the at least onedopant is selected from the group consisting of boron, phosphorus,arsenic, antimony, tellurium, zinc, aluminum, chromium and combinationsthereof.
 7. The method of claim 5, wherein the doping state and thesilicon form comprise a silicon source selected from the groupconsisting of p-type doped single-crystal silicon, n-type dopedsingle-crystal silicon, p-type doped polycrystalline silicon, n-typedoped polycrystalline silicon, n-type doped nanocrystalline silicon,p-type doped nanocrystalline silicon, n-type doped amorphous silicon andp-type doped amorphous silicon.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein thep-type doped single-crystal silicon, n-type doped single-crystalsilicon, p-type doped polycrystalline silicon and n-type dopedpolycrystalline silicon each have a Miller index selected from the groupconsisting of <100>, <111> and <110>.
 9. The method of claim 1, whereinthe at least one solvent is selected from the group consisting ofacetonitrile, methylene chloride, chloroform, ether, sulfolane, waterand combinations thereof.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the atleast one diazonium salt comprises at least one aryl diazonium salt. 11.The method of claim 10, wherein the at least one aryl diazonium salt hasstructure (I):

wherein R₁ is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkenyl,aryl, and alkynyl; wherein A is selected from the group consisting of H,alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, alkynyl and combinations thereof; wherein Y_(x)comprises at least one substituent selected from the group consisting ofnitro, amino, acyl, heteroatoms, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, alkynl, fluoro,diazonium, diazo, allyl, thiol, thioacetate, isonitrile, nitrile and H;and wherein X⁻ is selected from the group consisting oftetrafluoroborate, tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate,hexafluorophosphate, chloride, bromide, iodide and hydrogensulfate (HSO₄⁻).
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein A comprises an aryl groupfurther substituted with at least one substituent selected from thegroup consisting of nitro, amino, acyl, heteroatoms, alkyl, alkenyl,aryl, alkynyl, fluoro, diazonium, diazo, allyl, thiol, thioacetate,isonitrile, nitrile and H.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the atleast one aryl diazonium salt has a structure selected from the groupconsisting of


14. The method of claim 1, wherein the generating step comprisespre-forming the at least one diazonium salt.
 15. The method of claim 1,wherein the generating step comprises an in situ formation of the atleast one diazonium salt.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the insitu formation comprises adding at least one reagent to an aromaticamine to provide an aryl diazonium salt.
 17. The method of claim 16,wherein the at least one reagent comprises isoamyl nitrite.
 18. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the plurality of organic groups comprise anordered monolayer.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein a long axis ofeach of the plurality of organic groups makes an angle to the at leastone silicon surface between about 90° and about 45°.
 20. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the plurality of organic groups comprise a multilayer.21. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one silicon surfacecomprises a shape selected from the group consisting of flat, curved,corrugated, and combinations thereof
 22. A molecule-surface interfaceprepared by a process comprising: a) providing at least one siliconsurface; wherein the at least one silicon surface comprises a dopedsilicon form; and wherein the at least one silicon surface is at leastpartially hydride-passivated; b) generating at least one organic groupprecursor; wherein the at least one organic group precursor comprises atleast one diazonium salt; c) contacting the at least one diazonium saltwith the at least one silicon surface; and d) reacting the at least onediazonium salt with the at least one silicon surface; wherein thereacting step comprises covalently bonding a plurality of organic groupsto the at least one silicon surface; wherein the plurality of organicgroups are produced from the at least one organic group precursor; andwherein the plurality of organic groups comprise at least one layer onthe at least one silicon surface; wherein the reacting step occurs inthe absence of an externally applied potential; and wherein the reactingstep is conducted in at least one solvent.